Jean-Bertrand Aristide

Jean-Bertrand Aristide

Jean-Bertrand Aristide with Bill Clinton in 1994.
President of Haiti
In office
7 February 1991 – 30 September 1991
Prime Minister René Préval
Preceded by Ertha Pascal-Trouillot
Succeeded by Raoul Cédras
In office
October 12, 1994 – February 7, 1996
Prime Minister Smarck Michel
Claudette Werleigh
Preceded by Émile Jonassaint
Succeeded by René Préval
In office
7 February 2001 – 29 February 2004
Prime Minister Jean Marie Chérestal
Yvon Neptune
Preceded by René Préval
Succeeded by Boniface Alexandre
Born 15 July 1953 (1953-07-15)
Port-Salut, Haiti
Political party Lavalas
Spouse(s) Mildred Trouillot(1996-present)
Children two daughters

Jean-Bertrand Aristide (born 15 July 1953) is a Haitian politician and former priest who served as Haiti's first democratically elected president.[1][2] An exponent of liberation theology, he was appointed to a parish in Port-au-Prince in 1982 after completing his studies. He became a focal point for the pro-democracy movement first under Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier and then under the military transition regime which followed. He won the Haitian general election, 1990-1991 with 67% of the vote and was briefly President of Haiti, until a September 1991 military coup. The coup regime collapsed in 1994 under US pressure and threat of force (Operation Uphold Democracy). Aristide was then President again from 1994 to 1996 and from 2001 to 2004.

Aristide was ousted in a February 2004 rebellion, in which former soldiers participated. He said the US had orchestrated a coup d'état against him, and received support from, among others, several members of the US congress and Jamaican Prime Minister P. J. Patterson.[3] Aristide was forced into exile, being flown directly out of Haiti to the Central African Republic,[3] eventually settling in South Africa.

Contents

Early life, education and Church career

Aristide was born into poverty in 1953 in Port Salut, on Haiti's southern coast. His father, a small farmer, died when he was three months old.[4] His mother moved the family to Port-au-Prince, seeking a better life for her two children.[5] At the age of five, Aristide started school with priests of the Salesian order.[6] He was educated at the College Notre Dame in Cap-Haïtien, graduating with honors in 1974. He then took a course of novitiate studies in La Vega, Dominican Republic before returning to Haiti to study philosophy at the Grand Seminaire Notre Dame and psychology at the State University of Haiti. After completing his post-graduate studies in 1979, Aristide traveled in Europe, studying in Italy, Greece[2] and Israel. Aristide returned to Haiti in 1982 for his ordination as a Salesian priest.[7] He was appointed curate of a small parish in Port-au-Prince.

For all but the first four years of Aristide's life until 1986, Haiti was ruled by the repressive dictatorships of François "Papa Doc" Duvalier and his son, Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier. The misery endured by Haiti's poor made a deep impression on Aristide,[5] and he became an outspoken critic of Duvalierism.[8] Nor did he spare the hierarchy of the country's church, since a 1966 Vatican Concordat granted Duvalier the power to appoint Haiti's bishops.[9]

An exponent of liberation theology,[10] Aristide denounced Duvalier's regime in one of his earliest sermons. This did not go unnoticed by the regime's top echelons. Under pressure, the provincial delegate of the Salesian Order sent him into three years of exile in Montreal.[7] By 1985, as popular opposition to Duvalier's regime grew, Aristide was back preaching in Haiti. His Easter Week sermon, "A Call to Holiness," delivered at the cathedral of Port-au-Prince and later broadcast throughout Haiti, proclaimed, "The path of those Haitians who reject the regime is the path of righteousness and love." [11]

Aristide became a leading figure in the ""ti legliz movement"" - Kreyòl for "little church." [12] In September 1985, he was appointed to St. Jean Bosco church, in a poor neighborhood in Port-au-Prince. Struck by the absence of young people in the church, Aristide began to organize youth, sponsoring weekly youth masses.[13] He founded an orphanage for urban street children in 1986 called Lafanmi Selavi [Family is Life].[14]:214 Its program sought to be a model of participatory democracy for the children it served.[15]

As he became a leading voice for the aspirations of Haiti's dispossessed, Aristide inevitably became a target for attack.[16] He survived at least four assassination attempts.[6] [17] The most widely publicized attempt, the St Jean Bosco massacre, occurred in September, 1988 [18] when over one hundred armed Tonton Macoute wearing red armbands forced their way into St. Jean Bosco as Aristide began Sunday mass.[19] As Army troops and police stood by, the men fired machine guns at the congregation and attacked fleeing parishioners with machetes. Aristide's church was burned to the ground. Thirteen people are reported to have been killed, and 77 wounded. Aristide survived and went into hiding.[14]

Subsequently, Salesian officials ordered Aristide to leave the country, but ten thousand Haitians protested, blocking his access to the airport.[20] In December, 1988, Aristide was expelled from his Salesian order.[21] A statement prepared in Rome called the priest's political activities an "incitement to hatred and violence," out of line with his role as a clergyman.[22] Aristide appealed the decision, saying "The crime of which I stand accused is the crime of preaching food for all men and women." [23] In a January 1988 interview he said "The solution is revolution, first in the spirit of the gospel; Jesus could not accept people going hungry. It is a conflict between classes, rich and poor. My role is to preach and organize...." [4] In 1994 Aristide left the priesthood, ending years of tension with the church over his criticism of its hierarchy and his espousal of liberation theology.[24] He married Mildred Trouillot, a US citizen, the following year. They have two daughters.[25]

First presidency (1991 - 1996)

Following the violence at the aborted national elections of 1987, the 1990 elections were approached with caution. Aristide announced his candidacy for the presidency and following a six-week campaign, during which he dubbed his followers the "Front National pour le Changement et la Démocratie" (National Front for Change and Democracy), or "FNCD", the "little priest" was elected President in 1990 with 67% of the vote. He was Haiti's first democratically elected president. However, just eight months into his Presidency he was overthrown by a bloody military coup. He broke from FNCD and created the OPL (Organisation Politique "Lavalas") - "the flood" or "torrent" in Kréyòl.

A coup attempt against Aristide had taken place on 6 January, even before his inauguration, when Roger Lafontant, a Tonton Macoute leader under Duvalier, seized the provisional President Ertha Pascal-Trouillot and declared himself President. After large numbers of Aristide supporters filled the streets in protest and Lafontant attempted to declare martial law, the Army crushed the incipient coup.[26]

During Aristide's short-lived first period in office, he attempted to carry out substantial reforms, which brought passionate opposition from Haiti's business and military elite.[27] He sought to bring the military under civilian control, retiring the Commander in Chief of the Army Hérard Abraham, initiated investigations of human rights violations, and brought to trial several Tontons Macoute who had not fled the country.[27] He also banned the emigration of many well known Haitians until their bank accounts had been examined.[27] His relationship with the National Assembly soon deteriorated, and he attempted repeatedly to bypass it on judicial, Cabinet and ambassadorial appointments.[27] His nomination of his close friend and political ally, René Préval, as Prime Minister, provoked severe criticism from political opponents overlooked, and the National Assembly threatened a no-confidence vote against Préval in August 1991. This led to a crowd of at least 2000 at the National Palace, which threatened violence; together with Aristide's failure to explicitly reject mob violence this permitted the junta which would topple him to accuse him of human rights violations.[27]

1991 coup d'état

In September 1991 the army performed a coup against him (1991 Haitian coup d'état), led by Army General Raoul Cédras, who ironically had been promoted by Aristide in June to Commander in Chief of the Army. Aristide was deposed on September 29, 1991, and after several days sent into exile, his life only saved by the intervention of US, French and Venezuelan diplomats.[28] In accordance with the requirements of Article 149 of the Haitian Constitution, Superior Court Justice Joseph Nérette was installed as Président Provisoire to serve until elections were held within 90 days of Aristide's resignation. However, real power was held by army commander Raoul Cédras.[29] The elections were scheduled, but were canceled under pressure from the United States Government. Aristide and other sources claim that both the coup and the election cancellation were the result of pressure from the American government.[30][31][32] High ranking members of the Haitian National Intelligence Service (S.I.N.), which had been set up and financed in the 80's by the Central Intelligence Agency as part of the war on drugs, were involved in the coup, and were reportedly still receiving funding and training from the C.I.A. for intelligence-gathering activities at the time of the coup, but this funding reportedly ended after the coup.[33] The New York Times said that "No evidence suggests that the C.I.A backed the coup or intentionally undermined President Aristide."[33] However, press reports about possible C.I.A. involvement in Haitian politics before the coup sparked Congressional hearings in the United States.[34]

A campaign of terror against Aristide supporters was started by Emmanuel Constant after Aristide was forced out. In 1993, Constant, who had been on the C.I.A.'s payroll as an informant since 1992, organized the FRAPH, which targeted and killed Aristide supporters.[35][36][37]

Aristide spent his exile first in Venezuela and then in the United States, working hard to develop international support. A United Nations trade embargo during Aristide's exile, intended to force the coup leaders to step down, was a strong blow to Haiti's already weak economy.[38] President George H.W. Bush granted an exemption from the embargo to many US companies doing business in Haiti, and President Bill Clinton extended this exemption.[39][40]

1994 return

Under US and international pressure (including United Nations Security Council Resolution 940 on 31 July 1994), the military regime backed down and US troops were deployed in the country by President Bill Clinton. On October 15, 1994, Aristide returned to Haiti to complete his term in office.[41] Aristide disbanded the Haitian army, and established a civilian police force. The noted speaker, academic, and historian Noam Chomsky is highly critical of what he calls hidden American imperialist actions in Haiti; "When Clinton restored Aristide-Clinton of course supported the military junta, another little hidden story...he strongly supported it in fact. He even allowed the Texaco Oil Company to send oil to the junta in violation of presidential directives; Bush Sr. did so as well-well, he finally allowed the president to return, but on condition that he accept the programs of Marc Bazin, the US candidate that he had defeated in the 1990 election. And that meant a harsh neoliberal program, no import barriers. That means that Haiti has to import rice and other agricultural commodities from the US from US agribusiness, which is getting a huge part of its profits from state subsidies. So you get highly subsidized US agribusiness pouring commodities into Haiti; I mean, Haitian rice farmers are efficient but nobody can compete with that, so that accelerated the flight into the cities." [42]

Aristide's first term ended in February 1996, and the constitution did not allow him to serve consecutive terms. There was some dispute over whether Aristide, prior to new elections, should serve the three years he had lost in exile, or whether his term in office should instead be counted strictly according to the date of his inauguration; it was decided that the latter should be the case. René Préval, a prominent ally of Aristide and Prime Minister in 1991 under Aristide, ran during the 1995 presidential election and took 88% of the vote. There was about 25% participation in these elections.[43]

Opposition (1996 - 2001)

In late 1996, Aristide broke from the OPL over what he called its "distance from the people"[30] and created a new political party, the Fanmi Lavalas. The OPL, holding the majority in the Sénat and the Chambre des Députés, renamed itself the Organisation du Peuple en Lutte, maintaining the OPL acronym.

The Fanmi Lavalas won the 2000 legislative election in May, but a number of Senate seats which should have had second-round runoffs were allocated to Lavalas candidates which, whilst leading, had not achieved a first-round majority of all votes cast. Fanmi Lavalas controlled the Provisional Election Commission which made the decision.[44] Aristide then was elected later that year in the Haitian presidential election, 2000, an election boycotted by most opposition political parties, now organised into the Convergence Démocratique. Although the US government claimed that the election turnout was hardly over 10 percent, international observers saw turnout of around 50 percent, and at the time, CNN Election Watch reported a turnout of 60% with over 92% voting for Aristide.[45] Only later did allegations surface mentioning the above figure of a 10% voter turnout.[46]

Second presidency (2001 - 2004)

Aristide called for France, the former colonizer of the country, to pay $21 billion[47] in restitution to Haiti for the 90 million gold francs extorted from Haiti by France over the period from 1825 to 1947. These payments were in recompense for lost French ownership of Haitian slaves and other property on Haitian independence [48].

2004 destabilization and coup

In February 2004, the assassination of Amiot Metayer sparked a violent rebellion that culminated in Aristide's removal from office. Amiot's brother, Buteur Metayer, blamed Aristide for the assassination, and used this as an excuse to form the National Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Haiti.[49] Joined by other groups [50] the rebels quickly took control of the North, and eventually laid siege to, and then invaded, the capital. Under disputed circumstances, Aristide was flown out of the country by the US on February 28, 2004.[51]

Earlier in February, Aristide's lawyer had claimed that the US was arming anti-Aristide troops.[52] Aristide later stated that France and the US had a role in what he termed "a kidnapping" that took him from Haiti to South Africa via the Central African Republic.[53] However, authorities said his temporary asylum there had been negotiated by the United States, France and Gabon.[54] On March 1, 2004, US Congresswoman Maxine Waters (D-CA), along with Aristide family friend Randall Robinson, reported Aristide had told them that he had been forced to resign and had been abducted from the country by the United States and that he had been held hostage by an armed military guard.[55]

After Aristide was removed from Haiti, looters raided his villa.[56] Most barricades were lifted the day after Aristide left as the shooting had stopped; order was maintained by Haitian police, along with armed rebels and local vigilante groups.[57] Almost immediately after the Aristides were transported from Haiti, Prime Minister of Jamaica, P.J. Patterson, dispatched a Member of Parliament, Sharon Hay Webster, to the Central African Republic. The leadership of that country agreed that Aristide and his family could go to Jamaica. The Aristides were in the island for several months until the Jamaican government gained acceptance by the Republic of South Africa for the family to relocate there.

Aristide has accused the US of deposing him.[3][58] According to Rep. Maxine Waters D-California, Mildred Aristide called her at her home at 6:30 a.m. to inform her "the coup d'etat has been completed", and Jean-Bertrand Aristide said the US Embassy in Haiti's chief of staff came to his house to say he would be killed "and a lot of Haitians would be killed" if he refused to resign immediately and said he "has to go now."[3] Rep. Charles Rangel, D-New York expressed similar words, saying Aristide had told him he was "disappointed that the international community had let him down" and "that he resigned under pressure" - "As a matter of fact, he was very apprehensive for his life. They made it clear that he had to go now or he would be killed."[3] When asked for his response to these statements Colin Powell said that "it might have been better for members of Congress who have heard these stories to ask us about the stories before going public with them so we don't make a difficult situation that much more difficult" and he alleged that Aristide "did not democratically govern or govern well".[3] CARICOM, an organization of Caribbean countries that included Haiti, called for a United Nations investigation into Aristide's removal, but were reportedly pressured by the US and France to drop their request. Some observers suggest the rebellion and removal of Aristide were covertly orchestrated by these two countries.[59][60] Jamaican Prime Minister P. J. Patterson released a statement saying "we are bound to question whether his resignation was truly voluntary, as it comes after the capture of sections of Haiti by armed insurgents and the failure of the international community to provide the requisite support. The removal of President Aristide in these circumstances sets a dangerous precedent for democratically elected governments anywhere and everywhere, as it promotes the removal of duly elected persons from office by the power of rebel forces."[3] In a 2006 interview, Aristide said the US went back on their word regarding compromises he made with them over privatization of enterprises to ensure that part of the profits would go to the Haitian people and then "relied on a disinformation campaign" to discredit him.[61]

Exile (2004 - )

After being cast into exile, in mid-2004 Aristide, his family, and bodyguards were welcomed to South Africa by several cabinet ministers, 20 senior diplomats, and a guard of honour.[62][63] Receiving a salary from and provided staff by the South African government,[64] Aristide lives with his family in a government villa in Pretoria.[65] In South Africa, Aristide became an honorary research fellow at the University of South Africa, learned Zulu, and on April 25, 2007, received a doctorate in African Languages.[66]

Possible return to Haiti

After René Préval, a former ally of Aristide, was elected president of Haiti, he said it would be possible for Aristide to return to Haiti.[67][68]

On December 21, 2007, a speech by Aristide marking the new year and Haiti's Independence Day was broadcast, the fourth such speech since his exile; in the speech he criticized the 2006 presidential election in which Préval was elected, describing it as a "selection," in which "the knife of treason was planted" in the back of the Haitian people.[69]

Since the election, some high ranking members of Lavalas have been targets for violence.[70][71] Lovinsky Pierre-Antoine, a leading human rights organizer in Haiti and a member of Lavalas, disappeared in August 2007.[72] His whereabouts remains unknown and a news article states,"Like many protesters, Wilson Mesilien, coordinator of the pro-Aristide September 30 Foundation wore a T-shirt demanding the return of foundation leader Lovinsky Pierre-Antoine, a human rights activist and critic of both UN and US involvement in Haiti."[73]

On December 16, 2009, several thousand protesters marched through Port-au-Prince calling for Aristide's return to Haiti, and protesting the exclusion of Aristide's populist Fanmi Lavalas party from upcoming elections.[74]

On January 12, 2010, Aristide sent his condolences to victims of the earthquake in Haiti just a few hours after it occurred, and stated that he wishes to return to help rebuild the country.[75][76]

Accomplishments

Under Aristide's leadership, his party implemented many major reforms. These included greatly increasing access to health care and education for the general population; increasing adult literacy and protections for those accused of crimes; improving training for judges, prohibiting human trafficking, disbanding the Haitian military (which primarily had been used against the Haitian people), establishing improved human rights and political freedoms; doubling the minimum wage; instituting land reform and assistance to small farmers;, providing boat construction training to fishermen; establishing a food distribution network to provide low cost food to the poor at below market prices, building low-cost housing, and attempting to reduce the level of government corruption.[77]

Criticism

Accusations of human rights abuses

Canadian political philosopher Peter Hallward, author of "Damming the Flood", notes that not only was President Aristide extremely popular among Haiti's poor masses but in addition; "when it comes to "the supervision of human rights in the most heavily exploited parts of the planet most of the 'neutral,' affluent and well-connected supervisors live at an immeasurable distance from the world endured by the people they supervise, and at a still greater distance from the sort of militant, unabashedly political mobilization that can alone offer any meaningful protection for truly universal rights." The helps explain the ease with which Human Rights Watch took anti-Aristide propaganda at face value, then dragged their feet interminably (as did Amnesty International) when Aristide's government was ousted and the rightist bloodbath began in earnest." [78]

Human Rights Watch accused the Haitian police force under President Aristide and his political supporters of attacks on opposition rallies. They also said that the emergence of armed rebel groups seeking to overthrow Aristide reflected "the failure of the country's democratic institutions and procedures".[79] A statement was attributed to Aristide in which he is alleged to have endorsed the practice of "necklacing" opposition activists - placing a gasoline-soaked tire around the neck and setting it ablaze. Aristide was quoted as saying on 27 August 1991 "What a beautiful tool! It smells good. And wherever you go, you want to smell it".[80] However there is some suspicion that Aristide's speech was edited to make it sound as if he advocated "necklacing" his opponents when he was actually urging his supporters not to use violence.[81]

The OAS/UN International Civilian Mission in Haiti, known by the French acronym MICIVIH, found that the human rights situation in Haiti improved dramatically following Aristide's return to power in 1994.[82] Amnesty International reported that Haiti was "descending into a severe humanitarian and human rights crisis" after Aristide's departure in 2004.[83]

Accusations of corruption

Haitian investigators claimed to have discovered extensive embezzlement and money laundering by Aristide's administration in which millions of dollars of public funds were allegedly lost to sophisticated financial transactions.[84] Aristide has forcefully denied these accusations.[85] The Haitian government filed a RICO (Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act) lawsuit in the US in Miami, Florida, in November 2005, alleging that Aristide and his associates took hundreds of thousands of dollars in kickbacks from the long distance company IDT, and that IDT diverted into a secret offshore bank account controlled by Aristide payments that should have gone to the Haitian company Teleco. The lawsuit was suspended by the Haitian government on June 30, 2006.[86][87]

According to a report by Christopher Caldwell in the July 1994 American Spectator, Aristide stole Haiti's telecom revenues while in the United States. Caldwell claims that between 1991 and 1994 Aristide ordered the proceeds from Haiti's international phone traffic handled by the Latin American division of AT&T be moved to a numbered offshore bank account in Panama.[88]

Some officials have been indicted by an US court.[89] Companies that allegedly made deals with Aristide included IDT, Fusion Telecommunications, and Skytel; critics claim the two first companies had political links. AT&T reportedly declined to wire money to "Mont Salem".[90][91][92][93]

Views

Aristide has published a number of books including an autobiography in 1993 and Nevrose vetero-testamentaire (1994) with excerpts of his masters and doctoral theses.

In 2000 Aristide published the book Eyes of the Heart: Seeking a Path for the Poor in the Age of Globalization that accused the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund of working on behalf of the world's wealthiest nations rather than in the interest of genuine international development. Aristide called for "a culture of global solidarity" to eliminate poverty as an alternative to the globalization represented by neocolonialism and neoliberalism.[94]

In 2005 the documentary Aristide and The Endless Revolution appeared. The film Nicolas Rossier investigates the events leading up to the 2004 coup against Aristide.[95]

Publications

Notes

  1. ↑ "Military ousts Haiti's leader, claims power President Aristide en route to France; fighting kills 26". The Boston Globe. October 1, 1991. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-7679593.html. 
  2. ↑ "Haiti: The impact of the 1991 coup". International Journal of Refugee Law. June 1992. http://ijrl.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pdf_extract/4/2/217. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 "Aristide says US deposed him in 'coup d'etat'". CNN. March 2, 2004. http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/americas/03/01/aristide.claim/. Retrieved May 6, 2010. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Portrait of a Folk-Hero: Father Jean-Bertrand Aristide
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Danner, Mark (4 Nov 1993). "Haiti on the Verge". The New York Review. http://www.markdanner.com/articles/show/73?class=related_content_link. Retrieved 20 May 2010. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Aristide no stranger to struggle". Associated Press. February 16, 2004. http://web.archive.org/web/19960101000000-20090802200407/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/americas/02/16/haiti.aristide.ap/index.html. Retrieved 30 January 2010. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Danner, Mark (18 Nov 1993). "The Prophet". The New York Review. http://www.markdanner.com/articles/show/74http://www.markdanner.com/articles/show/74. Retrieved 27 April 2010. 
  8. ↑ Gallo, Michael F (Fall 1989). "Hope in Haiti? An interview with Jean-Bertrand Aristide". Touchstone Magazine (Chicago, IL: Fellowship of St. James) 3 (3). http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=03-03-026-i. Retrieved 10 May 2010. 
  9. ↑ "Concordat Watch: Papa Doc's Concordat (1966)". http://www.concordatwatch.eu/showtopic.php?org_id=847&kb_header_id=39321. Retrieved 10 May 2010. 
  10. ↑ Liberation Theology General Information, on [1] Believe, an online religious information source
  11. ↑ Hallward, Peter (May-June 2004). "Option Zero in Haiti". New Left Review (London) 27 (May-June 200). http://newleftreview.org/A2507. Retrieved 20 May 2010. 
  12. ↑ Rohter, Larry (24 July 1994). "Liberal Wing of Haiti's Church Resists Military". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/24/world/liberal-wing-of-haiti-s-catholic-church-resists-military.html?pagewanted=1. Retrieved 20 May 2010. 
  13. ↑ Farmer, Paul (2005). The Uses of Haiti, 3rd edition. Common Courage Press. p. 104. ISBN 13 9781567513448. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Wilentz, Amy (1989). The Rainy Season: Haiti Since Duvalier. Simon and Schuster. pp. 348-353. ISBN 0-671-64186-7. 
  15. ↑ Bernat, J. Christopher (1999). "Children and the Politics of Violence in Haitian Context: Statist violence, scarcity and street child agency in Port-au-Prince". Critique of Anthropology (London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi: SAGE Publications) 19 (2): 121-138. http://coa.sagepub.com/cgi/content/short/19/2/121. Retrieved 10 May 2010. 
  16. ↑ French, Howard (24 Sept 1988). "Attack on Priest Called Haiti Catalyst". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/24/world/attack-on-priest-called-haiti-catalyst.html. Retrieved 20 May 2010. 
  17. ↑ Farmer, Paul. "Who is Aristide, from Uses of Haiti". Common Courage Press. http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Haiti/Who_Is_Aristide.html. Retrieved 20 May 2010. 
  18. ↑ Belleau, Jean-Philippe (2 April 2008). "Massacres perpetrated in the 20th Century in Haiti". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. http://www.massviolence.org/Massacres-perpetrated-in-the-20th-Century-in-Haiti?cs=print. Retrieved 21 May 2010. 
  19. ↑ Treaster, Joseph B (23 Sept 1988). "Haiti Terrorists Form in New Groups". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/23/world/haiti-terrorists-form-in-new-groups.html. Retrieved 23 May 2010. 
  20. ↑ Farmer, Paul (2005). The Uses of Haiti, 3rd edition. Common Courage Press. pp. 122. ISBN 13 9781567513448. 
  21. ↑ Treaster, Joseph B (18 Dec 1988). "A Haitian Priest is Ousted by Order". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/18/world/a-haitian-priest-is-ousted-by-order.html. Retrieved 20 May 2010. 
  22. ↑ Corbett, Bob. "Aristide Resigning Priesthood". http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/recent/priest.htm. Retrieved 20 May 2010. 
  23. ↑ Farmer, Paul (2005). The Uses of Haiti, 3rd edition. Common Courage Press. pp. 124-125. ISBN 13 9781567513448. 
  24. ↑ Rohter, Larry (17 Nov 1994). "Aristide decides to quit as priest". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/17/world/aristide-decides-to-quit-as-priest.html?pagewanted=1. Retrieved 10 May 2010. 
  25. ↑ Jean-Bertrand Aristide's Tumultuous Career
  26. ↑ Collins, Edward Jr.; Cole, Timothy M. (1996), "Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide", Journal of International Law & Practice 5(2), p220.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 Collins, Edward Jr.; Cole, Timothy M. (1996), "Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide", Journal of International Law & Practice 5(2), p219.
  28. ↑ Collins, Edward Jr.; Cole, Timothy M. (1996), "Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide", Journal of International Law & Practice 5(2), p199.
  29. ↑ "Leader Of Haiti Ousted Military Takes Over After Seizing Aristide" (reprint). St. Louis Post-Dispatch. 1991-10-01. http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/99074.html. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Peter Hallward (February 22, 2007). "An Interview with Jean-Bertrand Aristide". London Review of Books. http://www.lrb.co.uk/v29/n04/peter-hallward/an-interview-with-jean-bertrand-aristide. 
  31. ↑ Marc Weisbrot (December 13, 2005). "US Is Still Undermining Haiti". ZNet. http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=55&ItemID=9321. 
  32. ↑ Vincent Browne (January 17, 2010). "Haiti's never-ending tragedy has American roots". The Sunday Business Post Online. http://www.sbpost.ie/commentandanalysis/haitis-neverending-tragedy-has-american-roots-46757.html. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 French, Howard W. (November 14, 1993). "C.I.A. Formed Haitian Unit Later Tied to Narcotics Trade". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/14/world/cia-formed-haitian-unit-later-tied-to-narcotics-trade.html?pagewanted=1. Retrieved May 6, 2010. 
  34. ↑ Jim Mann (November 2, 1993). "Congress to Probe CIA-Haiti Ties". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1993-11-02/news/mn-52438_1_house-intelligence-committee. 
  35. ↑ Jim Mann (November 2, 1993). "Congress to Probe CIA-Haiti Ties: Reports say agency financed some leaders involved in coup". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1993-11-02/news/mn-52438_1_house-intelligence-committee. 
  36. ↑ Rupert Cornwell (October 7, 1994). "CIA 'helped to set up terror group' in Haiti". London: The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/cia-helped-to-set-up-terror-group-in-haiti-1441438.html. 
  37. ↑ Mark Weisbrot (November 22, 2005). "Undermining Haiti". The Nation. http://live.thenation.com/doc/20051212/weisbrot. 
  38. ↑ Victoria Graham (August 27, 1993). "U.N. Ready To End Haiti Sanctions". The Seattle Times. http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19930827&slug=1717922. 
  39. ↑ Sydney P. Freedberg, Rachel L. Swarns (November 3, 1994). "Poorly Enforced Sanctions Botch US Embargo Of Haiti". The Seattle Times. http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19941103&slug=1939459. 
  40. ↑ Carl Hartman (February 18, 1994). "Americans Step Up Business With Haiti Despite Sanctions". The Seattle Times. http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19940218&slug=1895987. 
  41. ↑ Manegold (AP), Catherine S. (October 16, 1994). "For Aristide's Followers, Every Step Is a Dance, Every Cheer a Song". Mission to Haiti: The Scene (New York Times). http://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/16/world/mission-haiti-scene-for-aristide-s-followers-every-step-dance-every-cheer-song.html. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  42. ↑ http://chomsky.info/interviews/20100309.htm
  43. ↑ Haiti Overview from american.edu
  44. ↑ Dailey, Peter (March 13, 2003). "Haiti: The Fall of the House of Aristide". New York Review of Books (nybooks.com) 50 (4). http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16126. Retrieved 2010-02-14. 
  45. ↑ "Election watch Haiti". CNN. November 26, 2000. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/election.watch/americas/haiti1.html. Retrieved May 6, 2010. 
  46. ↑ Dick Bernard (March 3, 2006). "Anatomy of an Official Lie". Chez-nous.net. http://www.chez-nous.net/anatomy.html. 
  47. ↑ Rhodes-Pitts, Sharifa (January 4, 2004). "A call for $21 billion from France aims to lift Haiti's bicentennial blues". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2004/01/04/reparation_day/. Retrieved 25 January 2010. 
  48. ↑ MacDonald, Isabel (2010-08-16). "France's debt of dishonour to Haiti". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/cifamerica/2010/aug/16/haiti-france. 
  49. ↑ Klarreich, Kathie (February 23, 2004). "Letter From Haiti: A Battle of Cannibals And Monsters". Time Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993414,00.html. 
  50. ↑ Steven, Dudley (February 15, 2004). "Disparate forces behind the violent opposition in Haiti". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/world/articles/2004/02/15/disparate_forces_behind_the_violent_opposition_in_haiti. 
  51. ↑ "Haiti's Aristide defiant in exile". BBC News. March 8, 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3543355.stm. 
  52. ↑ Amy Goodman, and Jeremy Scahill (February 25, 2004). "Haiti's Lawyer: US Is Arming Anti-Aristide Paramilitaries". Democracynow.org. http://www.democracynow.org/2004/2/25/haitis_lawyer_u_s_is_arming. Retrieved 25 January 2010. 
  53. ↑ Paul Farmer (April 15, 2004). "Who removed Aristide?". London Review of Books. http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n08/farm01_.html. 
  54. ↑ Associated Press (March 1, 2004). "Aristide arrives for African exile". CNN International. http://web.archive.org/web/19960101-re_/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/africa/03/01/centralaf.aristide.ap/index.html. Retrieved 29 January 2010. 
  55. ↑ "Rep Maxine Waters: Aristide Says 'I Was Kidnapped'". Democracy Now. http://www.democracynow.org/2004/3/1/rep_maxine_waters_aristide_says_i/index.pl?issue=20040301. Retrieved 2006-07-21. 
  56. ↑ Associated Press (March 1, 2004). "Looters pick through Aristide's villa: Letters about the CIA, FBI left behind". CNN. http://web.archive.org/web/19960101-re_/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/americas/03/01/aristide.home.ap/index.html. Retrieved 29 January 2010. 
  57. ↑ Reuters (March 1, 2004). "Haitians emerge to work, or party". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/americas/03/01/haiti.scene.reut/index.html. Retrieved 29 January 2010. 
  58. ↑ Jim Lobe (March 12, 2004). "Role in Haiti Events Backfiring on Washington". Inter Press Service. http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0312-03.htm. 
  59. ↑ Thalif Deen (April 13, 2004). "US, France Block UN Probe of Aristide Ouster". Inter Press Service. http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0413-08.htm. 
  60. ↑ Mark Weisbrot (November 22, 2005). "Undermining Haiti". The Nation. http://live.thenation.com/doc/20051212/weisbrot. 
  61. ↑ An Interview with Jean-Bertrand Aristide Aristide's interview was conducted in French, in Pretoria, on 20 July 2006; originally published in London Review of Books, Feb 19, 2007
  62. ↑ Munnion, Christopher (June 1, 2004). "Mbeki rolls out the red carpet for exile Aristide". London: Telegraph co.uk. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/1463372/Mbeki-rolls-out-the-red-carpet-for-exile-Aristide.html. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  63. ↑ Momberg, Eleanor (June 1, 2004). "Warm welcome for Aristide". Independent Online (IOL). http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=13&art_id=vn20040601020633394C195402. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  64. ↑ Political Bureau (June 25, 2009). "Ex president living it up in SA". Independent Online (IOL). http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=13&art_id=vn20090625110116436C282577. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  65. ↑ Smith, David (January 15, 2010). "Haiti's exiled former president vows to return". London: Guardian News and Media. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jan/15/haiti-exiled-former-president-aristide. Retrieved May 6, 2010. 
  66. ↑ "Exiled Aristide gets SA doctorate", iafrica.com, April 26, 2007.
  67. ↑ "Haiti 'to allow' Aristide return". BBC. February 23, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4741100.stm. 
  68. ↑ "Thousands demand Aristide return". BBC. July 16, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5184280.stm. 
  69. ↑ "Exiled former Haitian president stirs supporters with speech", Associated Press (International Herald Tribune), December 22, 2007.
  70. ↑ "Dr. Maryse Narcisse Kidnapped in Haiti" Dr. Maryse Narcisse - a member of the National Commission of the Fanmi Lavalas Party - was kidnapped in Octerber 2007, and later freed after a ransom was paid.
  71. ↑ Amnesty International Index: AMR 36/008/2007 — Wilson Mésilien, the successor to Lovinsky Pierre-Antoine, had to go into hiding following death threats.
  72. ↑ Fondasyon Mapou and the Haitian Priorities Project (August 14, 2007). "We are urging for the safe return of Lovinsky Pierre-Antoine". Press release. Toronto Haiti Action Committee. http://www.thac.ca/node/45. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  73. ↑ Katz, Jonathan M.; AP (February 29, 2008). "Thousands march in Haiti on anniversary of Aristide's departure". SignOnSanDiego.com. http://legacy.signonsandiego.com/news/world/20080229-1521-haiti-aristideanniversary.html. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  74. ↑ "Aristide supporters protest election ban in Haiti". Reuters. December 17, 2009. http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE5BG04J20091217. 
  75. ↑ Smith, David (January 15, 2010). "Haiti's exiled former president vows to return". London: Guardian News and Media. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jan/15/haiti-exiled-former-president-aristide. Retrieved May 6, 2010. 
  76. ↑ http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=13&art_id=nw20100115104056479C978493
  77. ↑ Stephen Lendman (December 16, 2005). "Achievements Under Aristide, Now Lost". ZNet. http://www.zmag.org/znet/viewArticle/4804. 
  78. ↑ http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Haiti/Damning_Flood_review.html
  79. ↑ "Haiti: Aristide Should Uphold Rule of Law". Human Rights Watch. February 13, 2004. http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2004/02/13/haiti-aristide-should-uphold-rule-law. 
  80. ↑ Associated Press (02-17-2004). "Haiti's Aristide prepares for a fight". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-02-17-17-aristide_x.htm. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  81. ↑ Lisa Pease (February 1, 2010). "America's Sad History with Haiti, Part 2". Consortium News. http://www.consortiumnews.com/2010/013110d.html. 
  82. ↑ "Three Years of Defending Human Rights". United Nations. September 1995. http://www.un.org/rights/micivih/rapports/3years.htm. 
  83. ↑ "Haiti Human Rights". Amnesty International. http://www.amnestyusa.org/all-countries/haiti/page.do?id=1011166. 
  84. ↑ "Probe of Aristide administration finds evidence of embezzlement". Dominican Today. October 31, 2005. http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/world/2005/10/31/6524/Probe-of-Aristide-administration-finds-evidence-of-embezzlement. 
  85. ↑ "Aristide says he plans to return to Haiti". USA Today. May 30, 2004. http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-05-30-aristide_x.htm. Retrieved May 6, 2010. 
  86. ↑ "Govt Corruption Suit Stalls for Lack of Funds". Inter Press Service. October 26, 2006. http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=35254. 
  87. ↑ "Haiti Report for July 13, 2006". InI. July 13, 2006. http://www.williambowles.info/haiti-news/2006/0706/haiti_report_130706.html. 
  88. ↑ "Aristide Development". American Spectator Vol. 027 Issue 007 (1 July 1994)
  89. ↑ "Indictments in Alleged Aristide Corruption Case". Press release. Haiti Democracy Project. 2009-12-08. http://www.haitipolicy.org/content/4348.htm. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  90. ↑ O'Grady, Mary Anastasia (July 28, 2008). "Aristide's American Profiteers". Opinion (Wall Street Journal). http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121720095066688387.html. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  91. ↑ O'Grady, Mary Anastasia (June 3, 2005). "Aristide's Past Deserves More Intense Scrutiny". Opinion (Wall Street Journal). http://online.wsj.com/article/SB111775322117449830.html. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  92. ↑ O'Grady, Mary Anastania (February 12, 2007). "The Haiti File". Opinion (Wall Street Journal). http://online.wsj.com/article/SB117124344952105351.html. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  93. ↑ Vardi, Nathan (December 10, 2009). "Will Bribery Probe Hit IDT? Company dealt with indicted Haitian telco official" (in Forbes.com). Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/2009/12/10/idt-telecommunications-bribery-business-wall-street-idt.html. Retrieved 14 February 2010. 
  94. ↑ Jean-Bertrand Aristide, "Introduction," The Haitian Revolution by Touissant L'Ouverture (New York and London: Verso, 2008), p. xxxiii.
  95. ↑ aristidethefilm.com

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Preceded by
Ertha Pascal-Trouillot		 President of Haiti
1991		 Succeeded by
Raoul Cédras
Preceded by
Marc Bazin		 President of Haiti
1993-1994		 Succeeded by
Émile Jonassaint
Preceded by
Émile Jonassaint		 President of Haiti
1994-1996		 Succeeded by
René Préval
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René Préval		 President of Haiti
2001-2004		 Succeeded by
Boniface Alexandre